The Question: Why is it, or is it not, important for business students to
develop critical thinking (CTS) and problem resolution (PRS) skills?
Assumptions: There are
way too many assumptions for this question as can be deduced from the
Bibliography and Abstracts that I looked at...but here are a few-the question
has the makings of a good PhD thesis!
- Business students need critical thinking and problem resolution skills to learn
- CTS and PRS can be developed in business students
- There is a connection between CTS and PRS.
- Graduates of business schools need CTS and PRS
Definitions and Concepts: An overview:
There is a multitude of definitions for these two concepts so I am
reflecting back on the Green Guides of Cameron (Cameron, 1999), Hudspith and
Jenkins (Hudspith & Jenkins,
2001)
and Caswell (Caswell, 2006) for an overview.
Dr. Cameron provided working definitions of ‘active learning’ and
‘critical thinking’. She linked these to Smith and Kolb’s model for learning
(Figure 1, Smith & Kolb, 1985). Cameron linked
active learning and critical thinking by using the skill stages in the Smith
and Kolb learning model (Figure 1, Smith &
Kolb, 1985, p. 12) to support her analysis. For this question, the concepts supporting
critical thinking and problem resolution are considered appropriate (Cameron, 1999).
Cameron focused on two critical concepts:-active learning and effective
thinking. She defined active learning
as active student participation in the learning process and their
use/application of content knowledge. She justified the definition as ‘sufficient to describe many teaching
techniques that involve students in the learning process’ (Cameron, 1999, p. 9).
She found effective thinking
to be a more challenging to define as many
authors provided definitions describing the thinking process. When she discussed
creative thinking, problem solving and critical thinking, she noted that some researchers divide
effective thinking into critical and creative thinking while others include
problem solving or decision making in their definitions. The research I looked
at for this question uses a number of definitions for these that relate to critical thinking
and analysis related to problem resolution.
Cameron concluded that the pedagological
implications of divergent and/or
inclusive definitions became blurred/or merely labels in teaching practice. She
developed a lengthy working definition of effective learning noting that
effective thinking and problem solving can be used interchangeably because of
the comon use of action verbs (use, recognize, identify, describe apply, weigh,
make, reach). She concluded simply that ‘Learning
is not a spectator sport’ .
Dr. Caswell outlined a working definition for creative
problem solving (CPS) as “an approach to
finding viable answers to real world problems that have no current suitable
solution” (Caswell, 2006 pg. 11). He differentiated this from problem based
learning (PBL) where the instructor determines the problem which is associated
with cases used as problems.
Caswell builds CPS on the assumption that students
have been solving problems for at least 18 years unlike the traditional assumption
that students are empty vessels instructors fill with knowledge. I share
Caswell’s assumption that students bring valuable learning that they can share
and believe it is fundamental to further development of PRS.
Caswell describes their teaching and learning CPS
model as a Triad of Triads[1]
(Figure 2) composed of three levels (theoretical environment, harmonizing
structure and actions) that support creatively solving ‘wicked’ problems[2]
which differ from ‘tame’ instructor defined problems. Caswell focused on the actions triad (familiarization,
functionality and testing) but spent considerable effort on narrative actions
as a means to provide a supportive learning environment. Their concepts of analysis and familiarization
appear in Dunne and Brooks approach to choosing appropriate classroom cases (Dunne & Brooks, 2004 ) and again in Hudspith
and Jenkins discussion of inquiry (Figure 3, (Hudspith & Jenkins, 2001))[3].
Overall, it is not easy to define concepts clearly but the above are used for the following analysis of the question.
Figure 1: Smith and Kolb Four Stage Learning and
Thinking Cycle
Figure 2: The Triads-The Dynamics of Creative Problem Solving
Figure 3:The
Art of Inquiry
[1] Caswell uses the term ‘triad’ in the musical sense of
combining 3 notes to create a sense of harmony.
Sets of triads make up the harmonic structure of a musical composition
see page 11. I like the idea of harmonizing concepts.
[2] Caswell defines “wicked” problems as real unsolved problems
unlike the problem format of ‘tame’ problems with known solutions that are
defined by instructors-the latter are the basis for the Problem Based Learning
model described in Green Guide 3 and illustrated in Table 1 in this paper or they
are decision making cases as illustrated in Figure 4 from Green Guide 5.
[3] Caswell
repeatedly states that there is no one way to solve problems or even to
identify the real problem. Caswell recognizes participatory inquiry as the
essential foundation for their environment triad. He notes that problem
identification may occur late in the learning process as part of the
familiarization process which is similar to the inquiry process (Figure 3). Hudspith and Jenkins consider inquiry as
proceeding problem definition because inquiry develops the central question
(problem) for investigation.
Assumption 1:
There is some suggestion that students do not see a linkage between what they are learning (including skills) even though they were moderately satisfied with the skills acquired. On the opposite side of the issue, employers do see the lack of critical thinking and creativity skills as an issue for them when they hire graduates into entry level positions (Snyder, 2003). Snyder provides an interesting definition of creativity
‘Creativity involves the ability to break
out of established patterns and try new approaches. A truly creative individual
is not lost in his or her own world, oblivious to all that goes on around them;
rather, they combine broad knowledge and imagination to stimulate adventurous
(and very likely unconventional) thinking versus merely generating a taxonomy
of ideas leading to only one conclusion.’ (Snyder,
2003)
Other
researches that focus on entrepreneurial skills propose that student do need
skills in a number of competencies including critical thinking and problem
resolution to learn (Strazdienė & Geležinienė, 2008, Mierson & Freiert,
2004, (Theroux,
2009).
Assumption 2:
There is a huge amount of literature on these concepts
(critical thinking and problem-based learning) as they apply to current business
programs. Some research is significantly better than others but some issues
regarding the scholarly nature of the research suggests that we need to
understand that the 'effectiveness of these these (experiential) teaching approaches
must be tentative’ (Gosen
& Washburn, 2004).
So we do need to consider whether it is important given the information
available to us.
Regardless, other researchers conclude that there is a
need for these skills and conduct their research accordingly. They are looking
for ‘how’ to teach these skills to business students In a 3 year study of Problem-Based Learning vs
Lectures one set of researchers found that there are significant differences in
the student development of their disposition toward critical thinking (which
also supports Assumption 3) (Tiwari, Lai, So, & Kwan, 2006). I note that the research is not restricted to
business students as these skills are critical to many professions (Capon &
Kuhn, 2004, Mierson & Freiert, 2004, Tiwari, Lai, So, & Kwan, 2006). Manning and Moore (2006) developed a real life
case t0 support MBA students developing skills to meet real challenges facing
managers in today's volatile business environment. Interestingly in this model encompasses a ‘big
picture’ approach to the case by focusing on ecological, economic and social
dimensions for a company in the textile wet-processing industry. The opportunity to critically assess the
impact of production processes on these dimensions requires them to interact
with the company. Government regulators (local and provincial) as well as the
community itself.
Similarly, Hannon et al. (2004) explored the value of
experiential learning techniques to promote critical thinking abilities in
business graduates. They indicate that a
‘A
business degree program should seek to produce graduates who are confident,
creative thinkers with the capacity to solve problems, think creatively,
negotiate, make decisions and resolve conflict’. They introduced a program on critical
thinking in the business school (Hannon,
McBride, & Burns, 2004). They express doubt about whether this is ‘innate
or learned’ (whether it is nature or nurture) but suggest that experience is
understood to ‘deepen and broaden’ creative and critical thinking skills.
A case example of General
Electrics approach to training indicates that that company believes that ‘big
picture’ thinking can be effective in training their executives for global
leadership (Noel & Charan, 1992).
Assumption 3:
A number of authors outline a relationship between critical
thinking skills and problem resolution (Capon & Kuhn, 2004, anring & Moore, 2006, McCarthy
& McCarthy, 2006, Nikolou-Walker & Garrett, 2004). Kamath et al. (2008) discuss the theory and
challenges in a global consulting program that is used in an international
online MBA. Their conceptual foundation
includes work from Dr. Peter Senge (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts,
Ross, & Smith, 1994) that focusses on learning organizations
and they conclude that this experiential approach is useful to students (Kamath, Agrawal, &
Krickx, 2008).
Assumption 4:
The research most effectively addressing this assumption is
that by Snyder (2003) who notes that companies state that students entering
their employ lack critical thinking skills or creativity. Their description of creativity suggests that
graduates problem solving skills are limited lacking innovative approaches. Similarly Johansnisson et al. (1998) express
a global concern regarding the requisite skills for entrepreneurship and small
business. They outline an action learning
model based on Kolb's model (Figure 1) (Johannisson, Landstrom,
& Rosenberg, 1998).
Figure 1: Smith and
Kolb Four Stage Learning and Thinking Cycle
Conclusions:
Bibliography
Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a Critically
Reflective Teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Burke, V., Jones,
I., & Doherty, M. (2005, July). Analysing student perceptions of
transferable skills via undergraduate degree programmes. Active Learning in
Higher Education, 6(2), 132-144.
Capon, N., &
Kuhn, D. (2004). What's So Good About Problem-Based Learning?. Cognition &
Instruction, 22(1), 61-79. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
(n.d.).
Capon, N., &
Kuhn, D. (2004). What's So Good About Problem-Based Learning? Cognition
& Instruction, 22(1), 61-79.
Gosen, J., &
Washburn, J. (2004, June). A review of scholarship on assessing experiential
learning effectiveness. Simulation & Gaming, 35(2), 270-293.
Hannon, S.,
McBride, H., & Burns, B. (2004, April). Developing creative and critical
thinking abilities in business graduates: The value of experiential learning
techniques. Industry & Higher Education, 18(2), 95-100.
Johannisson, B.,
Landstrom, H., & Rosenberg, J. (1998, December). University training for
entrepreneurship--An action frame of reference. European Journal of
Engineering Education, 23(4), 477.
Johnson, D. W.,
Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991). Active Learning: Cooperation in
the college classroom. Kingston, Ontario, Canada: Interaction Book Company.
Kamath, S.,
Agrawal, J., & Krickx, G. (2008). Implementing Experiential Action Learning
in International Management Education: The Global Business Strategic
(GLOBUSTRAT) Consulting Program. Journal of Teaching in International
Business, 19(4), 403-449.
Kryder, L. A.
(2002). Large Lecture Format: Some Lessons Learned. Business Communication
Quarterly, 65(1), 88-98.
Manring, S., &
Moore, S. B. (2006, May). Creating and managing a virtual inter-organizational
learning network for greener production: a conceptual model and case study. Journal
of Cleaner Production, 14(9-11), 891-899.
McCarthy, P., &
McCarthy, H. (2006). When Case Studies Are Not Enough: Integrating Experiential
Learning Into Business Curricula . Journal of Education for Business, 81(4),
201-204.
Mierson, S., &
Freiert, K. (2004, October). Problem-Based Learning. 58(10), 15-17.
Nikolou-Walker, E.,
& Garrett, J. (2004). Work-Based Learning. A new imperative: developing
reflective practice in professional life . Reflective Practice, 5(3),
297-312.
Noel, J., &
Charan, R. (1992, July). GE Brings Global Thinking To Light . Training &
Development, 46(7), 28.
P, G. (2001).
Course cultures and learning organizations. Active Learning in Higher
Education, 2(1), 8-30.
Page, D., &
Mukherjee, A. (2007). Promoting Critical-Thinking Skills By Using Negotiation
Exercises. Journal of Education for Business, 82(5), 251-257.
Reboy, L. M., &
Semb, G. B. (1991, December). PSI and Critical Thinking: Compatibility or
Irreconcilable Differences? Teaching of Psychology, 18(4), 212-215.
Sarah, C., Colin,
B., & Jillian, G. (2004). Stepping out of the classroom and up the ladder
of learning: An experiential learning approach to entrepreneurship education. Industry
& Higher Education, 18(1), 11-22.
Senge, P., Kleiner,
A., Roberts, C., Ross, R., & Smith, B. (1994). The Fifth Discipline
Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization.
Doubleday/Currency.
Smith, M. K.
(2001). The learning organization. Retrieved April 21, 2011, from The
encyclopedia of informal education:
http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-organization.htm.
Snyder, K. D.
(2003, July). Ropes, Poles, and Space: Active Learning in Business Education. Active
Learning in Higher Education, 4(2), 159.
Stephen, H., Hugh,
M., & Barbara, B. (2004). Developing creative and critical thinking
abilities in business graduates: The value of experiential learning techniques.
Industry & Higher Education. Industry & Higher Education, 18(2),
95-100.
Strazdienė, G.,
& Geležinienė, R. (2008). Priorities in Applying Learning Models At A
Simulation Business Enterprise. Vocational Education: Research & Reality(15),
102-115.
Theroux, J. M.
(2009, Jul/Aug). Real-Time Case Method: Analysis of a Second Implementation. Journal
of Education for Business, 84(6), 367-373.
Tiwari, A., Lai,
P., So, M., & Kwan, Y. (2006, June). A comparison of the effects of
problem-based learning and lecturing on the development of students' critical
thinking . Medical Education, 40(6), 547-554.
Selected Abstracts
- A comparison of the effects of problem-based learning and lecturing on the development of students' critical thinking. By: Tiwari, Agnes; Lai, Patrick; So, Mike; Kwan Yuen. Medical Education, June 2006, Vol. 40 Issue 6, p. 547-554
Abstract:
Background Educational approaches are thought to have facilitative or hindering
effects on students' critical thinking development. The aim of this study was
to compare the effects of problem-based learning (PBL) and lecturing approaches
on the development of students' critical thinking. Methods All 79 Year 1
undergraduate nursing students at a university in Hong
Kong were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 parallel courses delivered
by either PBL ( n = 40) or lecturing ( n = 39) over 1 academic year. The
primary outcome measure was students' critical thinking disposition as measured
by the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI). Individual
interviews were also conducted to elicit the students' perceptions of their
learning experience. Data were collected at 4 time points spanning 3 years.
Results
1.
The overall
CCTDI and subscale scores for the Problem-Based Learning (PBL) group versus
Lecture Group (LG) were
a.
PBL not
significantly different from LG group at the first timepoint (pretest).
2.
PBL students
showed significantly greater improvement in overall CCTDI ( P = 0.0048),
Truthseeking ( P = 0.0008), Analyticity ( P = 0.0368) and Critical Thinking
Self-confidence ( P = 0.0342) subscale scores from the first to the second timepoints;
·
PBL change
(+ve)in overall CCTDI ( P = 0.0083), Truthseeking ( P = 0.0090) and Analyticity
( P = 0.0354) subscale scores from the first
to the third time points;
·
in Truthseeking
( P = 0.0173) and Systematicity ( P = 0.0440) subscale scores from the first to the fourth time points.
Conclusions
There were significant differences in the development of students' critical
thinking dispositions between those who undertook the PBL and lecture courses,
respectively.
2. A review of scholarship on assessing experiential learning
effectiveness. By: Gosen, Jerry; Washbush, John. Simulation & Gaming, June 2004,
Vol. 35 Issue 2, p. 270-293.
Abstract: This
article focuses on the research and scholarship dealing with the assessment of
the experiential approach in both its computer-based and human-based forms. It
covers two forms of assessment.
1.
First it covers
explicit attempts to assess the validity of experiential learning, and
2.
second it focuses on measuring the
effectiveness of the experiential approach.
The authors classify the literature on both
·
validity and
measurement into critiques and prescriptions for ideal research on one hand and
·
empirical research studies on the other.
The empirical research reviewed supports the notion that experiential leaning is effective.
However the studies showing these results reflect a long-standing trend of not
meeting the highest of research design and measurement standards.
Thus, the authors believe any conclusion about the effectiveness of these
teaching approaches must be tentative
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comparison of the effects of problem-based learning and lecturing on the
development of students' critical thinking.</A>
3.
Analysing
student perceptions of transferable skills via undergraduate degree programmes.
By: Burke, Veronica; Jones, Ian; Doherty, Mike. Active Learning in Higher
Education, July 2005, Vol. 6 Issue 2, p. 132-144
Abstract:
Despite the assumption that 'transferable' skills are part and parcel of a
graduate's portfolio, there is a lack of information about the extent to which
such skills may be perceived by students to be valuable. Although the skills
agenda has been at the forefront of Higher Education (HE) provision for some time,
contemporary studies focus upon
measurement issues and neglect the process aspects of skills learning and
development. There is also a lack of research to support methodologies
aimed at promoting optimal transfer of
skills to work environments. It is apparent that there is a certain lack of
clarity about the linkage between the nature of the learning environments that
may be provided, and the types of outcomes that are purported to accrue.
Accordingly, focusing on this context, the investigation had two objectives:
a.
first, to
assess students' perceptions of the knowledge and skills acquired during their
undergraduate degree programmes; and
b.
second, to
evaluate the perceived effectiveness of the strategies adopted in respect of
learning transfer.
At the University of Luton 116 Level Three students
completed a questionnaire that covered all the major skill descriptors of the
university's skills template. The results revealed statistically significant
differences between the two closely related programmes in terms of perceived
skills acquisition. Although the findings indicated that students were
moderately satisfied with the skills acquired, a potential cause for concern
was that one in five students did not
perceive any transfer strategies to be effective.
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student perceptions of transferable skills via undergraduate degree
programmes.</A>
4.
Creating
and managing a virtual inter-organizational learning network for greener
production: a conceptual model and case study. Manring, Susan L.; Moore, Samuel B.. Journal
of Cleaner Production, May 2006, Vol. 14 Issue 9-11, p.891-899
Abstract: The
utility of applying a virtual learning network model for illustrating
successful triple bottom line transitions—one that integrates the ecological,
economic, and social dimensions of cleaner production—is illustrated by a
successful approach to promote “green chemistry” in the North Carolina textile
wet-processing industry.
This case is unique in demonstrating the quality of this
process to develop cleaner production methods; it shows how reducing aquatic
toxicity and harmful environmental effects in a “real world” situation depends
on successful efforts to build, manage, and maintain an inter-organizational
network of multiple stakeholders. This network included industries in the
textile production chain, their local and provincial communities, regulators
and policy makers. The utilization of cases such as this in the business school
pedagogy expands understanding of the role of sustainable practices in
enterprise management.
The value of this specific case in promoting the
understanding of such networks was demonstrated in a recent MBA experience when
students trained in these areas linked diverse stakeholders and applied the
triple bottom line perspective in traditional business simulation exercises in
an MBA capstone course.
Such cases can also effectively prepare students for actual
challenges facing managers in the rapidly changing business environment.
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and managing a virtual inter-organizational learning network for greener
production: a conceptual model and case study.</A>
5.
Developing
creative and critical thinking abilities in business graduates: The value of
experiential learning techniques. By: Stephen Hannon; Hugh McBride; Barbara
Burns. Industry & Higher Education, April 2004, Vol. 18 Issue 2, p. 95-100
Abstract: Educational programmes should promote an ethos of
lifelong learning and develop in graduates the capacity for long-term personal
and professional development through self-learning and reflection.
A business degree programme should seek to produce graduates who are confident, creative thinkers
with the capacity to solve problems, think creatively, negotiate, make
decisions and resolve conflict. The development of these capabilities
should not be left to chance, but should be addressed explicitly in the
programme. Whether creativity and critical thinking skills are innate or
learned, there is little disagreement that experience deepens and expands these
abilities. A module entitled 'Critical Thinking' has been introduced into a
bachelor's degree in Business Studies. In this module both individual and team
experiential tasks are used to develop creative thinking. These tasks are
relevant to business activities in product development, marketing, and process
development. Experiential exercises in decision making and conflict resolution
abilities build skills necessary to face challenges from new technologies,
competition or the business environment.
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creative and critical thinking abilities in business graduates: The value of
experiential learning techniques.</A>
6.
GE Brings
Global Thinking To Light. By: Noel, James L.; Charan, Ram. Training &
Development, July 1992, Vol. 46 Issue 7, p. 28
Abstract:
Discusses the training programs at the General Electric Co. (GE)
·
Use of action
learning;
·
Components of
executive education at GE;
·
Areas in which
action learning appears to be most effective;
·
Role of action
learning in the development of global business leaders.; (AN 9091076)
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BRINGS GLOBAL THINKING TO LIGHT.</A>
7.
Implementing
Experiential Action Learning in International Management Education: The Global
Business Strategic (GLOBUSTRAT) Consulting Program. Kamath, Shyam; Agrawal, Jagdish; Krickx,
Guido. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 2008, Vol. 19 Issue 4, p.
403-449
Abstract: This
paper discusses the theoretical foundations and implementation challenges and
outcomes of a unique "hands-on" global consulting program that is
integrated into an international EMBA program for mid-career and senior
American and European managers. It details
·
the challenges
for the integration of experiential action learning,
·
double-loop learning,
·
service
learning, and
·
tacit learning
into global management education
They discuss
·
the value of
such integration for the EMBA-participant's learning experience
·
lessons learned
from the implementation of the use of integrated global consulting based on an
experiential action learning model on EMBA education
Conclusions: The
andragogical model of education used should be a useful guide for designing and
implementing experiential action learning based MBA/EMBA programs.
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8.
Priorities in
Applying Learning Models At A Simulation Business Enterprise. By: Strazdienė,
Gražina; Geležinienė, Renata. Vocational Education: Research & Reality,
2008, Issue 15, p. 102-115
Abstract: Under the conditions of constant change, young people
have to assume responsibility for their future, be flexible and creative.
Entrepreneurship education is one of the most important conditions for the
development of the country's economy, for guaranteeing and advancing the
well-being of all people. Teachers who work at simulation business enterprises
face a complicated task: to develop entrepreneurial skills and prepare a young
person for work and life under the conditions of global economy. To fulfil this task teachers have to
develop such competencies as communication, critical thinking, problem solving,
team-building and decision making. Furthermore, teachers themselves have to
possess appropriate professional competencies that enable them to learn
throughout all their life, apply reflective practice for the development of
their activity and seek for better teaching and learning outcomes.
The article presents a research which analyses teacher
intentions to apply learning process organization models in simulation business
enterprises. A model of entrepreneurial self/education is presented, based on
action learning, experiential learning and cooperative learning concepts.
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IN APPLYING LEARNING MODELS AT A SIMULATION BUSINESS ENTERPRISE.</A>
9. Problem-Based Learning. By: Mierson, Sheella; Freiert,
Kevin. T+D, Oct2004, Vol. 58 Issue 10, p. 15-17
Abstract: This
article focuses on problem-based learning. Captivating participants' attention
and keeping them tuned in is a big challenge, even for the savviest trainer.
Problem-based learning (PBL) provides an answer. Using PBL, participants work
cooperatively to seek solutions to complex real-world problems, which drives
the learning. Problem-based learning can be used for a single training session,
during an ongoing training program, and as a standard team process for
meetings.It's also ideal for addressing complex cross-functional business
topics.
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Learning.</A>
10.
Real-Time
Case Method: Analysis of a Second Implementation. By: Theroux, James M..
Journal of Education for Business, Jul/Aug 2009, Vol. 84 Issue 6, p. 367-373,
Abstract: In
2005, M. Hopkins and J. Theroux implemented the second example of an
experimental case study, at 11 business
schools in the United States and Canada. The new type of case study, named
the real-time case (RTC) study, uses the Internet to bring business reality to
business courses and to facilitate communication among faculty, students, and
the case company. In the present study, data from student surveys provided an
assessment of RTC.
The author's
analysis suggests that the RTC concept engages and satisfies students at a
higher level than do average courses and presents a more realistic and
integrated view of business decision making.
However, the
level of satisfaction declined in comparison with the first iteration of RTC in
2001 (S. House & J. Theroux).
In the
present study, the author presents student feedback to explain the difference.
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Case Method: Analysis of a Second Implementation.</A>
11.
Ropes,
Poles, and Space: Active Learning in Business Education.: Kimberlee D. Snyder.
Active Learning in Higher Education, July 2003, Vol. 4 Issue 2, p. 159,
Abstract: As
business students graduate and obtain jobs in the global market, corporations are complaining that students
employed in entry-level management positions lack critical thinking or
creativity skills. Creativity involves the ability to break out of
established patterns and try new approaches. A truly creative individual is not
lost in his or her own world, oblivious to all that goes on around them;
rather, they combine broad knowledge and imagination to stimulate adventurous
(and very likely unconventional) thinking versus merely generating a taxonomy
of ideas leading to only one conclusion.
How can a university business faculty incorporate `critical
thinking' and `creativity' into their courseware? This article discusses an
encompassing active learning matrix with examples of exercises, projects, and
simulations to foster critical and creative thinking skills in business courses
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12.
University
training for entrepreneurship--An action frame of reference. Johannisson,
Bengt; Landstrom, Hans; Rosenberg, Jessica. European Journal of Engineering
Education, Dec 98, Vol. 23 Issue 4, p. 477
Abstract:
Focuses on an action frame approach in discussing university training for
entrepreneurship. Global concern for
·
knowledge about
and competencies for entrepreneurship and small business;
·
Kolb's model of
action learning;
·
Construction
for an `entrepreneurial action capability' test;
·
Origin of
research in entrepreneurship;
·
Propositions on action
rationality in learning contexts.
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