Week 2: A loaded Question!

The Question:   Why is it, or is it not, important for business students to develop critical thinking (CTS) and problem resolution (PRS) skills?

Assumptions: There are way too many assumptions for this question as can be deduced from the Bibliography and Abstracts that I looked at...but here are a few-the question has the makings of a good PhD thesis!

1. Business students need critical thinking and problem resolution skills to learn
2. CTS and PRS can be developed in business students
3. There is a connection between CTS and PRS.
4. Graduates of business schools need CTS and PRS 

 Definitions and Concepts:  An overview:

There is a multitude of definitions for these two concepts so I am reflecting back on the Green Guides of Cameron (Cameron, 1999), Hudspith and Jenkins (Hudspith & Jenkins, 2001) and Caswell (Caswell, 2006) for an overview.

Dr. Cameron provided working definitions of ‘active learning’ and ‘critical thinking’. She linked these to Smith and Kolb’s model for learning (Figure 1, Smith & Kolb, 1985).  Cameron linked active learning and critical thinking by using the skill stages in the Smith and Kolb learning model (Figure 1, Smith & Kolb, 1985, p. 12) to support her analysis.  For this question, the concepts supporting critical thinking and problem resolution are considered appropriate (Cameron, 1999).

Cameron focused on two critical concepts:-active learning and effective thinking. She defined active learning as active student participation in the learning process and their use/application of content knowledge. She justified the definition as ‘sufficient to describe many teaching techniques that involve students in the learning process’ (Cameron, 1999, p. 9).  She found effective thinking to be a more challenging  to define as many authors provided definitions describing the thinking process. When she discussed creative thinking, problem solving and critical thinking, she noted that some researchers divide effective thinking into critical and creative thinking while others include problem solving or decision making in their definitions. The research I looked at for this question uses a number of definitions  for these that relate to critical thinking and analysis related to problem resolution.

Cameron concluded that the pedagological implications of  divergent and/or inclusive definitions became blurred/or merely labels in teaching practice. She developed a lengthy working definition of effective learning noting that effective thinking and problem solving can be used interchangeably because of the comon use of action verbs (use, recognize, identify, describe apply, weigh, make, reach). She concluded simply that ‘Learning is not a spectator sport’ .

Dr. Caswell outlined a working definition for creative problem solving (CPS) as “an approach to finding viable answers to real world problems that have no current suitable solution” (Caswell, 2006 pg. 11). He differentiated this from problem based learning (PBL) where the instructor determines the problem which is associated with cases used as problems.

Caswell builds CPS on the assumption that students have been solving problems for at least 18 years unlike the traditional assumption that students are empty vessels instructors fill with knowledge. I share Caswell’s assumption that students bring valuable learning that they can share and believe it is fundamental to further development of PRS.

Caswell describes their teaching and learning CPS model as a Triad of Triads^[1] (Figure 2) composed of three levels (theoretical environment, harmonizing structure and actions) that support creatively solving ‘wicked’ problems^[2] which differ from ‘tame’ instructor defined problems.  Caswell focused on the actions triad (familiarization, functionality and testing) but spent considerable effort on narrative actions as a means to provide a supportive learning environment.  Their concepts of analysis and familiarization appear in Dunne and Brooks approach to choosing appropriate classroom cases  (Dunne & Brooks, 2004 ) and again in Hudspith and Jenkins discussion of inquiry (Figure 3, (Hudspith & Jenkins, 2001))^[3].

Overall, it is not easy to define concepts clearly but the above are used for the following analysis of the question.

Figure 1:  Smith and Kolb Four Stage Learning and Thinking Cycle

Figure 2: The Triads-The Dynamics of Creative Problem Solving

Figure 3:The Art of Inquiry

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[1] Caswell uses the term ‘triad’ in the musical sense of combining 3 notes to create a sense of harmony.  Sets of triads make up the harmonic structure of a musical composition see page 11. I like the idea of harmonizing concepts.

[2] Caswell defines “wicked” problems as real unsolved problems unlike the problem format of ‘tame’ problems with known solutions that are defined by instructors-the latter are the basis for the Problem Based Learning model described in Green Guide 3 and illustrated in Table 1 in this paper or they are decision making cases as illustrated in Figure 4 from Green Guide 5.

[3] Caswell repeatedly states that there is no one way to solve problems or even to identify the real problem. Caswell recognizes participatory inquiry as the essential foundation for their environment triad. He notes that problem identification may occur late in the learning process as part of the familiarization process which is similar to the inquiry process (Figure 3).  Hudspith and Jenkins consider inquiry as proceeding problem definition because inquiry develops the central question (problem) for investigation.

Assumption 1:

There is some suggestion that students do not see a linkage between what they are learning (including skills) even though they were moderately satisfied with the skills acquired.  On the opposite side of the issue, employers do see the lack of critical thinking and creativity skills as an issue for them when they hire graduates into entry level positions (Snyder, 2003).  Snyder provides an interesting  definition of creativity

‘Creativity involves the ability to break out of established patterns and try new approaches. A truly creative individual is not lost in his or her own world, oblivious to all that goes on around them; rather, they combine broad knowledge and imagination to stimulate adventurous (and very likely unconventional) thinking versus merely generating a taxonomy of ideas leading to only one conclusion.’ (Snyder, 2003)

Other researches that focus on entrepreneurial skills propose that student do need skills in a number of competencies including critical thinking and problem resolution to learn (Strazdienė & Geležinienė, 2008, Mierson & Freiert, 2004, (Theroux, 2009).

Assumption 2:

There is a huge amount of literature on these concepts (critical thinking and problem-based learning) as they apply to current business programs.  Some research is significantly better than others but some issues regarding the scholarly nature of the research suggests that we need to understand that the 'effectiveness of these these (experiential) teaching approaches must be tentative’ (Gosen & Washburn, 2004). So we do need to consider whether it is important given the information available to us. 

Regardless, other researchers conclude that there is a need for these skills and conduct their research accordingly. They are looking for ‘how’ to teach these skills to business students  In a 3 year study of Problem-Based Learning vs Lectures one set of researchers found that there are significant differences in the student development of their disposition toward critical thinking (which also supports Assumption 3) (Tiwari, Lai, So, & Kwan, 2006).  I note that the research is not restricted to business students as these skills are critical to many professions (Capon & Kuhn, 2004, Mierson & Freiert, 2004, Tiwari, Lai, So, & Kwan, 2006).  Manning and Moore (2006) developed a real life case t0 support MBA students developing skills to meet real challenges facing managers in today's volatile business environment.  Interestingly in this model encompasses a ‘big picture’ approach to the case by focusing on ecological, economic and social dimensions for a company in the textile wet-processing industry.  The opportunity to critically assess the impact of production processes on these dimensions requires them to interact with the company. Government regulators (local and provincial) as well as the community itself. 

Similarly, Hannon et al. (2004) explored the value of experiential learning techniques to promote critical thinking abilities in business graduates.  They indicate that a ‘A business degree program should seek to produce graduates who are confident, creative thinkers with the capacity to solve problems, think creatively, negotiate, make decisions and resolve conflict’.  They introduced a program on critical thinking in the business school (Hannon, McBride, & Burns, 2004).  They express doubt about whether this is ‘innate or learned’ (whether it is nature or nurture) but suggest that experience is understood to ‘deepen and broaden’ creative and critical thinking skills.

A case example of General Electrics approach to training indicates that that company believes that ‘big picture’ thinking can be effective in training their executives for global leadership (Noel & Charan, 1992).

Assumption 3:

A number of authors outline a relationship between critical thinking skills and problem resolution (Capon & Kuhn, 2004, anring & Moore, 2006, McCarthy & McCarthy, 2006, Nikolou-Walker & Garrett, 2004).  Kamath et al. (2008) discuss the theory and challenges in a global consulting program that is used in an international online MBA.  Their conceptual foundation includes work from Dr. Peter Senge (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994) that focusses on learning organizations and they conclude that this experiential approach is useful to students (Kamath, Agrawal, & Krickx, 2008).

Assumption 4:

The research most effectively addressing this assumption is that by Snyder (2003) who notes that companies state that students entering their employ lack critical thinking skills or creativity.  Their description of creativity suggests that graduates problem solving skills are limited lacking innovative approaches.  Similarly Johansnisson et al. (1998) express a global concern regarding the requisite skills for entrepreneurship and small business.  They outline an action learning model based on Kolb's model (Figure 1) (Johannisson, Landstrom, & Rosenberg, 1998).

Figure 1:  Smith and Kolb Four Stage Learning and Thinking Cycle

 

Conclusions:

Based on the albeit limited review of research, I conclude that it is important for students to develop critical thinking  and problem resolution skills for their own learning and for the needs of their future employers.

Bibliography

Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Burke, V., Jones, I., & Doherty, M. (2005, July). Analysing student perceptions of transferable skills via undergraduate degree programmes. Active Learning in Higher Education, 6(2), 132-144.

Capon, N., & Kuhn, D. (2004). What's So Good About Problem-Based Learning?. Cognition & Instruction, 22(1), 61-79. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database. (n.d.).

Capon, N., & Kuhn, D. (2004). What's So Good About Problem-Based Learning? Cognition & Instruction, 22(1), 61-79.

Gosen, J., & Washburn, J. (2004, June). A review of scholarship on assessing experiential learning effectiveness. Simulation & Gaming, 35(2), 270-293.

Hannon, S., McBride, H., & Burns, B. (2004, April). Developing creative and critical thinking abilities in business graduates: The value of experiential learning techniques. Industry & Higher Education, 18(2), 95-100.

Johannisson, B., Landstrom, H., & Rosenberg, J. (1998, December). University training for entrepreneurship--An action frame of reference. European Journal of Engineering Education, 23(4), 477.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991). Active Learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Kingston, Ontario, Canada: Interaction Book Company.

Kamath, S., Agrawal, J., & Krickx, G. (2008). Implementing Experiential Action Learning in International Management Education: The Global Business Strategic (GLOBUSTRAT) Consulting Program. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 19(4), 403-449.

Kryder, L. A. (2002). Large Lecture Format: Some Lessons Learned. Business Communication Quarterly, 65(1), 88-98.

Manring, S., & Moore, S. B. (2006, May). Creating and managing a virtual inter-organizational learning network for greener production: a conceptual model and case study. Journal of Cleaner Production, 14(9-11), 891-899.

McCarthy, P., & McCarthy, H. (2006). When Case Studies Are Not Enough: Integrating Experiential Learning Into Business Curricula . Journal of Education for Business, 81(4), 201-204.

Mierson, S., & Freiert, K. (2004, October). Problem-Based Learning. 58(10), 15-17.

Nikolou-Walker, E., & Garrett, J. (2004). Work-Based Learning. A new imperative: developing reflective practice in professional life . Reflective Practice, 5(3), 297-312.

Noel, J., & Charan, R. (1992, July). GE Brings Global Thinking To Light . Training & Development, 46(7), 28.

P, G. (2001). Course cultures and learning organizations. Active Learning in Higher Education, 2(1), 8-30.

Page, D., & Mukherjee, A. (2007). Promoting Critical-Thinking Skills By Using Negotiation Exercises. Journal of Education for Business, 82(5), 251-257.

Reboy, L. M., & Semb, G. B. (1991, December). PSI and Critical Thinking: Compatibility or Irreconcilable Differences? Teaching of Psychology, 18(4), 212-215.

Sarah, C., Colin, B., & Jillian, G. (2004). Stepping out of the classroom and up the ladder of learning: An experiential learning approach to entrepreneurship education. Industry & Higher Education, 18(1), 11-22.

Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R., & Smith, B. (1994). The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization. Doubleday/Currency.

Smith, M. K. (2001). The learning organization. Retrieved April 21, 2011, from The encyclopedia of informal education: http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-organization.htm.

Snyder, K. D. (2003, July). Ropes, Poles, and Space: Active Learning in Business Education. Active Learning in Higher Education, 4(2), 159.

Stephen, H., Hugh, M., & Barbara, B. (2004). Developing creative and critical thinking abilities in business graduates: The value of experiential learning techniques. Industry & Higher Education. Industry & Higher Education, 18(2), 95-100.

Strazdienė, G., & Geležinienė, R. (2008). Priorities in Applying Learning Models At A Simulation Business Enterprise. Vocational Education: Research & Reality(15), 102-115.

Theroux, J. M. (2009, Jul/Aug). Real-Time Case Method: Analysis of a Second Implementation. Journal of Education for Business, 84(6), 367-373.

Tiwari, A., Lai, P., So, M., & Kwan, Y. (2006, June). A comparison of the effects of problem-based learning and lecturing on the development of students' critical thinking . Medical Education, 40(6), 547-554.

  Selected Abstracts

1. A comparison of the effects of problem-based learning and lecturing on the development of students' critical thinking. By: Tiwari, Agnes; Lai, Patrick; So, Mike; Kwan Yuen. Medical Education, June 2006, Vol. 40 Issue 6, p. 547-554

Abstract: Background Educational approaches are thought to have facilitative or hindering effects on students' critical thinking development. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of problem-based learning (PBL) and lecturing approaches on the development of students' critical thinking. Methods All 79 Year 1 undergraduate nursing students at a university in Hong Kong were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 parallel courses delivered by either PBL ( n = 40) or lecturing ( n = 39) over 1 academic year. The primary outcome measure was students' critical thinking disposition as measured by the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI). Individual interviews were also conducted to elicit the students' perceptions of their learning experience. Data were collected at 4 time points spanning 3 years.

 Results

1.       The overall CCTDI and subscale scores for the Problem-Based Learning (PBL) group versus Lecture Group (LG) were

a.       PBL not significantly different from LG group at the first timepoint (pretest).

2.       PBL students showed significantly greater improvement in overall CCTDI ( P = 0.0048), Truthseeking ( P = 0.0008), Analyticity ( P = 0.0368) and Critical Thinking Self-confidence ( P = 0.0342) subscale scores from the first to the second timepoints;

·         PBL change (+ve)in overall CCTDI ( P = 0.0083), Truthseeking ( P = 0.0090) and Analyticity ( P = 0.0354) subscale scores from the first to the third time points;

·         in Truthseeking ( P = 0.0173) and Systematicity ( P = 0.0440) subscale scores from the first to the fourth time points.

Conclusions There were significant differences in the development of students' critical thinking dispositions between those who undertook the PBL and lecture courses, respectively.

2.  A review of scholarship on assessing experiential learning effectiveness. By: Gosen, Jerry; Washbush, John. Simulation & Gaming, June 2004, Vol. 35 Issue 2, p. 270-293.

Abstract: This article focuses on the research and scholarship dealing with the assessment of the experiential approach in both its computer-based and human-based forms. It covers two forms of assessment.

1.       First it covers explicit attempts to assess the validity of experiential learning, and

2.        second it focuses on measuring the effectiveness of the experiential approach.

The authors classify the literature on both

·         validity and measurement into critiques and prescriptions for ideal research on one hand and

·          empirical research studies on the other.

The empirical research reviewed supports the notion that experiential leaning is effective. However the studies showing these results reflect a long-standing trend of not meeting the highest of research design and measurement standards. Thus, the authors believe any conclusion about the effectiveness of these teaching approaches must be tentative

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3.       Analysing student perceptions of transferable skills via undergraduate degree programmes. By: Burke, Veronica; Jones, Ian; Doherty, Mike. Active Learning in Higher Education, July 2005, Vol. 6 Issue 2, p. 132-144

Abstract: Despite the assumption that 'transferable' skills are part and parcel of a graduate's portfolio, there is a lack of information about the extent to which such skills may be perceived by students to be valuable. Although the skills agenda has been at the forefront of Higher Education (HE) provision for some time, contemporary studies focus upon measurement issues and neglect the process aspects of skills learning and development. There is also a lack of research to support methodologies aimed at promoting optimal transfer of skills to work environments. It is apparent that there is a certain lack of clarity about the linkage between the nature of the learning environments that may be provided, and the types of outcomes that are purported to accrue. Accordingly, focusing on this context, the investigation had two objectives:

a.       first, to assess students' perceptions of the knowledge and skills acquired during their undergraduate degree programmes; and

b.      second, to evaluate the perceived effectiveness of the strategies adopted in respect of learning transfer.

At the University of Luton 116 Level Three students completed a questionnaire that covered all the major skill descriptors of the university's skills template. The results revealed statistically significant differences between the two closely related programmes in terms of perceived skills acquisition. Although the findings indicated that students were moderately satisfied with the skills acquired, a potential cause for concern was that one in five students did not perceive any transfer strategies to be effective.

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4.       Creating and managing a virtual inter-organizational learning network for greener production: a conceptual model and case study.  Manring, Susan L.; Moore, Samuel B.. Journal of Cleaner Production, May 2006, Vol. 14 Issue 9-11, p.891-899

Abstract: The utility of applying a virtual learning network model for illustrating successful triple bottom line transitions—one that integrates the ecological, economic, and social dimensions of cleaner production—is illustrated by a successful approach to promote “green chemistry” in the North Carolina textile wet-processing industry.

This case is unique in demonstrating the quality of this process to develop cleaner production methods; it shows how reducing aquatic toxicity and harmful environmental effects in a “real world” situation depends on successful efforts to build, manage, and maintain an inter-organizational network of multiple stakeholders. This network included industries in the textile production chain, their local and provincial communities, regulators and policy makers. The utilization of cases such as this in the business school pedagogy expands understanding of the role of sustainable practices in enterprise management.

The value of this specific case in promoting the understanding of such networks was demonstrated in a recent MBA experience when students trained in these areas linked diverse stakeholders and applied the triple bottom line perspective in traditional business simulation exercises in an MBA capstone course.

Such cases can also effectively prepare students for actual challenges facing managers in the rapidly changing business environment.

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5.       Developing creative and critical thinking abilities in business graduates: The value of experiential learning techniques. By: Stephen Hannon; Hugh McBride; Barbara Burns. Industry & Higher Education, April 2004, Vol. 18 Issue 2, p. 95-100

 Abstract: Educational programmes should promote an ethos of lifelong learning and develop in graduates the capacity for long-term personal and professional development through self-learning and reflection.

A business degree programme should seek to produce graduates who are confident, creative thinkers with the capacity to solve problems, think creatively, negotiate, make decisions and resolve conflict. The development of these capabilities should not be left to chance, but should be addressed explicitly in the programme. Whether creativity and critical thinking skills are innate or learned, there is little disagreement that experience deepens and expands these abilities. A module entitled 'Critical Thinking' has been introduced into a bachelor's degree in Business Studies. In this module both individual and team experiential tasks are used to develop creative thinking. These tasks are relevant to business activities in product development, marketing, and process development. Experiential exercises in decision making and conflict resolution abilities build skills necessary to face challenges from new technologies, competition or the business environment.

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6.       GE Brings Global Thinking To Light. By: Noel, James L.; Charan, Ram. Training & Development, July 1992, Vol. 46 Issue 7, p. 28

Abstract: Discusses the training programs at the General Electric Co. (GE)

·         Use of action learning;

·         Components of executive education at GE;

·         Areas in which action learning appears to be most effective;

·         Role of action learning in the development of global business leaders.; (AN 9091076)

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7.       Implementing Experiential Action Learning in International Management Education: The Global Business Strategic (GLOBUSTRAT) Consulting Program.  Kamath, Shyam; Agrawal, Jagdish; Krickx, Guido. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 2008, Vol. 19 Issue 4, p. 403-449

Abstract: This paper discusses the theoretical foundations and implementation challenges and outcomes of a unique "hands-on" global consulting program that is integrated into an international EMBA program for mid-career and senior American and European managers. It details

·         the challenges for the integration of experiential action learning,

·          double-loop learning,

·         service learning, and

·         tacit learning into global management education

They discuss

·         the value of such integration for the EMBA-participant's learning experience

·         lessons learned from the implementation of the use of integrated global consulting based on an experiential action learning model on EMBA education

Conclusions: The andragogical model of education used should be a useful guide for designing and implementing experiential action learning based MBA/EMBA programs.

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8.       Priorities in Applying Learning Models At A Simulation Business Enterprise. By: Strazdienė, Gražina; Geležinienė, Renata. Vocational Education: Research & Reality, 2008, Issue 15, p. 102-115

 Abstract: Under the conditions of constant change, young people have to assume responsibility for their future, be flexible and creative. Entrepreneurship education is one of the most important conditions for the development of the country's economy, for guaranteeing and advancing the well-being of all people. Teachers who work at simulation business enterprises face a complicated task: to develop entrepreneurial skills and prepare a young person for work and life under the conditions of global economy. To fulfil this task teachers have to develop such competencies as communication, critical thinking, problem solving, team-building and decision making. Furthermore, teachers themselves have to possess appropriate professional competencies that enable them to learn throughout all their life, apply reflective practice for the development of their activity and seek for better teaching and learning outcomes.

The article presents a research which analyses teacher intentions to apply learning process organization models in simulation business enterprises. A model of entrepreneurial self/education is presented, based on action learning, experiential learning and cooperative learning concepts.

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9.       Problem-Based Learning. By: Mierson, Sheella; Freiert, Kevin. T+D, Oct2004, Vol. 58 Issue 10, p. 15-17

Abstract: This article focuses on problem-based learning. Captivating participants' attention and keeping them tuned in is a big challenge, even for the savviest trainer. Problem-based learning (PBL) provides an answer. Using PBL, participants work cooperatively to seek solutions to complex real-world problems, which drives the learning. Problem-based learning can be used for a single training session, during an ongoing training program, and as a standard team process for meetings.It's also ideal for addressing complex cross-functional business topics.

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10.       Real-Time Case Method: Analysis of a Second Implementation. By: Theroux, James M.. Journal of Education for Business, Jul/Aug 2009, Vol. 84 Issue 6, p. 367-373,

Abstract: In 2005, M. Hopkins and J. Theroux implemented the second example of an experimental case study, at 11 business schools in the United States and Canada. The new type of case study, named the real-time case (RTC) study, uses the Internet to bring business reality to business courses and to facilitate communication among faculty, students, and the case company. In the present study, data from student surveys provided an assessment of RTC.

The author's analysis suggests that the RTC concept engages and satisfies students at a higher level than do average courses and presents a more realistic and integrated view of business decision making.

However, the level of satisfaction declined in comparison with the first iteration of RTC in 2001 (S. House & J. Theroux).

In the present study, the author presents student feedback to explain the difference.

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11.   Ropes, Poles, and Space: Active Learning in Business Education.: Kimberlee D. Snyder. Active Learning in Higher Education, July 2003, Vol. 4 Issue 2, p. 159,

Abstract: As business students graduate and obtain jobs in the global market, corporations are complaining that students employed in entry-level management positions lack critical thinking or creativity skills. Creativity involves the ability to break out of established patterns and try new approaches. A truly creative individual is not lost in his or her own world, oblivious to all that goes on around them; rather, they combine broad knowledge and imagination to stimulate adventurous (and very likely unconventional) thinking versus merely generating a taxonomy of ideas leading to only one conclusion.

How can a university business faculty incorporate `critical thinking' and `creativity' into their courseware? This article discusses an encompassing active learning matrix with examples of exercises, projects, and simulations to foster critical and creative thinking skills in business courses

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12.   University training for entrepreneurship--An action frame of reference. Johannisson, Bengt; Landstrom, Hans; Rosenberg, Jessica. European Journal of Engineering Education, Dec 98, Vol. 23 Issue 4, p. 477

Abstract: Focuses on an action frame approach in discussing university training for entrepreneurship. Global concern for

·         knowledge about and competencies for entrepreneurship and small business;

·         Kolb's model of action learning;

·         Construction for an `entrepreneurial action capability' test;

·         Origin of research in entrepreneurship;

·         Propositions on action rationality in learning contexts.

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